Art History: Byzantine & Early Christian
We have moved beyond the ancient world, and are now in the Middle Ages. We will begin this section of art history with a large force that will shape art for 1,000 years - the Near Eastern religion of Christianity.
Unified political power of Rome began to dissolve during the 4th century CE. Rome was divided into two areas of operation, the east and west. The eastern portion of the empire was referred to as Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine portion had a central power, and retained its organization as western Rome crumbled.
A new religious fervor took hold in the crumbling Late Empire. Many different creeds sprang up, including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and other prophet-central religions. Christianity - centered around Jesus of Nazareth - became the most known and widespread. The gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were likely written in the late first century.
By 300 CE, 1/3 of Rome was Christian, but still persecuted until Constantine made the religion official in 312. Constantine then claimed god gave him divine right to rule, making him head of church and state. In this decision, Constantine joined the might of Rome with the concept of Christianity. This would set events in motion to dictate the entire Middle Ages (and thus the rest of European history).
New capital in Byzantium (Constantinople, Istanbul), center area of most Christian population, wealthy, distant from "pagan" Rome. Constantine did not anticipate this but when Rome officially split, this new capital was perfectly placed to dominate the Eastern Roman Empire (Rome capital of West).
Bishop of Rome (Pope) arose, Eastern Empire disputed their claim as head of church. Slight differences and practices (also the strain of the split leadership) eventually led to the formation of the Western "Catholic" Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. THE GREAT SCHISM.
Early Christian art is a term that describes any art made prior to the schism. Byzantine art refers to the Eastern Empire, specifically centered around Constantinople.
EARLY CHRISTIAN:
FOCUSED ON SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS. Rather than the naturalistic trend of Greek and Rome depictions of gods.
Little survives prior to 200 CE. North Africa and Near East were sites of great Christian influence, not Rome (yet).
CATACOMBS:
Catacombs (underground burial places), are greatest source of early Christian art. Faith rested on salvation, the hope of eternal life in paradise. PIETRO E MARCELLINO. Basic geometric pattern connected to four lunettes (semicircles), with four basic figures with outstretched arms (orants, harkening to pagan prayerful pose). Value is symbolic, no need for artistic perfection. Likely never visited again once buried (unless rarely for commemorations).
Christ is not represented, consistent with biblical prohibition against image making (idol worship), except by metaphor. Shepherd with lamb on his shoulders is a potent metaphor: Good Shepherd.
Lunettes show story of Jonah and the whale (spent three days, came out unharmed - to make Jewish converts more comfortable with new religion). Also has pagan styled postures and poses to make pagan converts more accepting. Christians very well used propaganda by doing this, supplanting pagan ideas and taking them for their own.
SCULPTURE:
Sculpture was secondary to Early Christian art. The concept of graven idols resonated strongest with actual statues. Sculpture as a result shuns life-size iterations of the human figure. Developed into shallow relief: "lace-like" surfaces. Moved away from large spatially impressive Roman and Greek statues.
Sarcophagi developed from their pagan ancestors. This example is Jonah and the sea monster- with another orant in the center with arms raised as with the catacomb ceiling.
CHURCH HOUSES:
Initially Christians met in private homes, only later having dedicated public meeting places. Expected due to persecution.
In Syria, a house was buried (to strengthen a defensive wall in 256CE) thus preserving one such meeting house. It is a typical Roman two story home. It had an atrium, but attached was also a designated space for baptisms. We see inside the lunettes a "good shepherd" figure, Adam and Eve on the lower left, and woman with candles proceeding toward a stone sarcophagus (three Mary's at the Tomb, where they meet an angel that says Christ is risen). These images are important because they reinforce the need of baptism - forgive original sin, resurrection.
Domus Ecclesiae: "house church"
Ecclesiae refers to a congregation of the church (but Greeks also used the word to describe political groups when assembled).
AFTER OFFICIAL RECOGNITION OF CHRISTIANITY
Almost overnight, they needed a new architectural style to be created to make the new official religion visible. Many imperially sponsored churches sprang up as Constantine oversaw this shift.
BASILICA:
Formed the basic model of church architecture in Western Europe. It was a Roman style of building - big and rectangular NAVE that had aisles lit by rows of CLERESTORY windows with an APSE at one end. I had a trussed roof. Altars were placed in the east, in front of the apse. The placement in the east shows the fact that Christianity is derived from many other religions from the area.
The greatest Constantine-built church was Old St. Peter's Basilica, in Rome. Replaced with the new basilica in the 16th century. Stood directly over the grave of St. Peter, covered by a BALDACCHINO. Apse in west of church, to accommodate site restrictions (centered on tomb). Visitors passed through an atrium, then a NARTHEX, or an entrance hall. Junction of nave and transept is where the altar stood.
At this time only dedicated and initiated (baptized) Christians could witness and participate in the mass. Everyone else could just listen. Even today it is referred to as the "Mystery" of the Mass.
CENTRAL PLAN STRUCTURES:
Round or polygonal structures capped by a dome. Reminiscent of Imperial tombs or mausoleums, they are often associated with burials. Constantine's daughter was buried in Santa Costanza, in Rome. Focus is put on central space, illuminated by clerestory windows, and twelve pairs of columns (four of which are higher, suggesting a cross). Circling the dome is an AMBULATORY. A ring-shaped aisle.
The difference between basilica and central structures is that the focus is either at the end of the aisle (basilica) or the center (central).
MOSAICS:
The sudden growth of Christian churches had a big impact on pictorial art of the time. Massive wall spaces had to be filled with images worthy of their framework. Out of this need emerged the early Christian wall mosaic.
Cycles of images were selected from the Old and New Testament - with the image lineage showing influences from Greco-Roman and North African paintings and images.
Many mosaics are shattered or lost, with only literary accounts providing us evidence as to their existence. Three structures in which the mosaic program is largely complete are the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the Orthodox Baptistry, and the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. (Ravenna, Ravenna, and Rome)
MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA PLACIDIA
Central plan in shapes of a Greek cross (equal length arms), with a simple brick (perhaps plastered) exterior that would heighten the impact of entering a gilded / marble / light-filled realm to evoke the Kingdom of God. The building is somewhat analogous to the ideal Christian - simple in external body and glorious in internal spirit. This was likely intentional.
The interior barrel vaults and dome are covered in mosaic. Above each vault, apostle flank a pair of doves and fountains (see slide): symbolic of souls drinking from the waters of paradise. In one lunette, St. Lawrence is beside a flame-racked grill, the tool of his martyrdom. A cabinet holding the four books of the gospel remind us and the viewers why he was martyred: refusing to surrender the "riches of the church." Here symbolically represented by the four gospels. The fact that books represented treasure (barring the obvious metaphor of the importance of the gospels) isn't strange, as books were objects of great luxury and wealth to both the church and empire.
Another lunette (next slide) shows the Good Shepherd, seated here in a fully-realized landscape, a departure from earlier catacomb paintings. The halo comes from representations of the emperor as sun-king, as the gold robes and purple scarf are symbols of imperial authority. The paradox of realism (hair, face, landscape, flock) against the abundance of gold portrayed signifies the human nature of Christ, but the equally divine nature he holds.
Roman and imperial wall paintings sought to create an illusion or "window" through the wall. The early Christians used gold tesserae to create a luminous realm of spiritual and celestial beings.
ORTHODOX BAPTISTRY
From the Christian House Baptistry evolved a new architectural need, a permanent structure to house and support baptisms. Eight sided polygonal structure that was domed. The eight sides link baptism and death (the world began on the 8th day. And Jesus was resurrected on the 8th day of the Passion). This was even paralleled in the Christian house (link to death/resurrection).
In the early church, baptism occurred only once a year, midnight on Easter Sunday - the day of the resurrection.
On the drum of the building, Old Testament prophets gaze down toward the visitor (not pictured). Dome above (see slide) shows apostles offering their crowns of martyrdom. In the center medallion, Christ is baptized, observed (and has his authority recognized) by a pagan river god. Looking up at the dome while being baptized must have had a profound impact on the pagans, who saw a visible link between their own experiences and the Son of God.
SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE
One year after Mary was declared Theotokos (Bearer of God) the first church to be dedicated to her was begun. Framed with pilasters, the entablature above the colonnade had 42 mosaic panels. These panels (see slide) illustrate the stories of the Old Testament. The need for narrative was as important as the need for symmetry here. For instance: Abraham, Isaac and the rest leave Canaan. On the right, Lot, and his two daughters, turn toward the city of Sodom.
The artist who made these panels faced the same task as he who made the column of Trajan. He needed to condense complex actions into basic forms able to be read at a distance, using formulas for "tree" or "house." Moreover, the literal gap between the two male the parting literal as well as metaphoric: Abraham was righteous, Sodom was evil.
ILLUSTRATED BOOKS
Papyrus was used until parchment (bleached animal hide) and vellum (a refined parchment) came along during the 2nd century BCE. These materials were able to bend/crease without breaking, allowing the creation of books, called a codex (1st century CE).
Vellum and parchment could hold rich colors and even gold, allowing complex "illuminations" to be added.
One of the earliest surviving books that illustrate the bible is an early 5th century fragment of the Quedlinburg Itala. Pictured here is Saul meeting Samuel. Visible under the flaking paint in this badly damaged fragment are the written instructions for the artist.
"You make the prophet speaking facing King Saul sacrificing." Apparently the artist was free to interpret these instructions as he saw fit. We know the artist also work on pagan works, such as the Aeneid. It raises questions as to what pagan motifs were carried over to Christian art, or the other way around.
SCULPTURE
Junius Bassus Sarcophagus: inscription tells us he was newly baptized. The idea of Christianity had obviously changed when a major state official proclaims his religion pictorially and literally through text. In the above center register, Christ is enthroned with his feet literally resting on Coelus, the pagan god of the heavens.
Christ is now depicted literally, accentuating his imperial nature. The overall style is that of a grand symbol, not meant to depict sweeping action but to recall a greater idea by "jogging our memory."
BYZANTINE ART
Early Byzantine
There is no clear cut timeline as to when Byzantine starts and Early Christian ends. The traits of the East and West Empires are difficult to differentiate prior to the 6th century. As the Western Empire declined, the East gained the role of cultural forerunner. When Justinian became emperor of the shift of focus was complete, he had made Constantinople the artistic as well as political capital of the Empire.
The political division that tore east and west apart also bore artistic differences. In the West, Celtic and Germanic people radically altered that portion of the empire to make it radically "European" where the East remained strongly Byzantine (with Greek and Mediterranean influences).
ARCHITECTURE
Ironically, the most well preserved architectural sites for Byzantine are are in Ravenna, Italy. Ravenna was the provincial capital of Italy under Justinian. Serves as a good microcosm of the empire as a whole.
The most important building in the Early Byzantine period is the church of San Vitale. Represents a building type derived from Constantinople - the octagonal plan with a circular core ringed by an ambulatory is a direct descendant of the Mausoleum of Santa Costanza in Rome however.
This is larger and more impressive than Costanza, there is a raised gallery above the aisle likely reserved for women - a practice still prevalent today. Domed, central-plan structures dominate the world of Othodox Christianity, just like the basilica dominated the medieval west.
The offset narthex may heighten the idea that you are passing from the physical to spiritual world - external space of the building to the interior.
San Vitale's link with the Byzantine court can be seen on two prominent mosaics flanking the altar. They depict Justinian and his empress, Theodora. They are accompanied by officials, clergy, ladies-in-waiting; as if about to enter a chapel in a palace.
The figures are tall and slim, almond shaped faces dominated by enormous eyes. They seem frozen in ceremony, only capable of performing their rituals and displaying their costume. No hint of movement or change. The green ground gives some basis of realism, but the unnatural golden background harken to a heavenly court.
The union of political and spiritual authority shown in these mosaics reflects a divine kingship, while also elevating the royal pair as patrons of the church. This places the emperor and empress at the liturgy every day, despite being thousands of miles away. The hem of Theodora's garment show the three magi - so too are the royal pair bringing offerings to the liturgy. Justinian brings bread, Theodora brings the chalice. The emperor is flanked by 12 attendants, and even harkens to Constantine through the addition of the shield with Chi Ro (paralleling Constantine's victory to Justinian's over Ravenna).
Among the surviving monuments of Justinian's reign in Constantinople, the most important is assuredly Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom). Built in only 5 years over a ruin of Constantine's church. In 1453 it was captured by the Turks and became a mosque, adding minarets and extra buttresses as well as large medallions with Islamic invocations on the interior (Allah, Muhammad flanking apse).
In the 20th century (turned into a museum) much of the original mosaic was uncovered, after having been painted over with whitewash.
The transition from square to dome is achieved through the use of pendentives. Hagia Sophia is the earliest example we have of practical pendentives, but likely invented earlier. The dome, then, seems to float above a row of closely spaced windows (which were not load bearing).
Historian to Justinian wrote: "whenever one enters this church to pray, he understands at once that it is not by any human power or skill, but by the influence of God, that this work has been so finely tuned." God is literally present due to the architectural wonder of the structure, the weightlessness of the dome.
SCULPTURE
Beyond the usual sarcophagi, early Byzantine sculpture consists mainly of reliefs in ivory and silver, which survive in considerable number.
Justinian as Conquerer: just like Augustus of prima porta breastplate, this relief tells (in Christian terms) the allegory of Justinian's victories. Victory appears twice: beside Justinian, and again as a statue in the hands of a roman official who was likely mirrored in the missing right panel. Foreign conquered people (even lions) pay homage to their conqueror below. A figure representing earth supports his foot, representing his claim over the world. His reign is blessed by heaven (literally, too, note sun moon and star) by Christ. This is a far departure from the calm philosopher of Marcus Aurelius mounted.
The Archangel Michael: may have been paired with another panel of Justinian, who likely commissioned it. There is an inscription that reads, "Receive these gifts, and having learned the cause...," which would continue on the other leaf naming the sins which should be forgiven.
We have moved beyond the ancient world, and are now in the Middle Ages. We will begin this section of art history with a large force that will shape art for 1,000 years - the Near Eastern religion of Christianity.
Unified political power of Rome began to dissolve during the 4th century CE. Rome was divided into two areas of operation, the east and west. The eastern portion of the empire was referred to as Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine portion had a central power, and retained its organization as western Rome crumbled.
A new religious fervor took hold in the crumbling Late Empire. Many different creeds sprang up, including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and other prophet-central religions. Christianity - centered around Jesus of Nazareth - became the most known and widespread. The gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were likely written in the late first century.
By 300 CE, 1/3 of Rome was Christian, but still persecuted until Constantine made the religion official in 312. Constantine then claimed god gave him divine right to rule, making him head of church and state. In this decision, Constantine joined the might of Rome with the concept of Christianity. This would set events in motion to dictate the entire Middle Ages (and thus the rest of European history).
New capital in Byzantium (Constantinople, Istanbul), center area of most Christian population, wealthy, distant from "pagan" Rome. Constantine did not anticipate this but when Rome officially split, this new capital was perfectly placed to dominate the Eastern Roman Empire (Rome capital of West).
Bishop of Rome (Pope) arose, Eastern Empire disputed their claim as head of church. Slight differences and practices (also the strain of the split leadership) eventually led to the formation of the Western "Catholic" Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. THE GREAT SCHISM.
Early Christian art is a term that describes any art made prior to the schism. Byzantine art refers to the Eastern Empire, specifically centered around Constantinople.
EARLY CHRISTIAN:
FOCUSED ON SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS. Rather than the naturalistic trend of Greek and Rome depictions of gods.
Little survives prior to 200 CE. North Africa and Near East were sites of great Christian influence, not Rome (yet).
CATACOMBS:
Catacombs (underground burial places), are greatest source of early Christian art. Faith rested on salvation, the hope of eternal life in paradise. PIETRO E MARCELLINO. Basic geometric pattern connected to four lunettes (semicircles), with four basic figures with outstretched arms (orants, harkening to pagan prayerful pose). Value is symbolic, no need for artistic perfection. Likely never visited again once buried (unless rarely for commemorations).
Christ is not represented, consistent with biblical prohibition against image making (idol worship), except by metaphor. Shepherd with lamb on his shoulders is a potent metaphor: Good Shepherd.
Lunettes show story of Jonah and the whale (spent three days, came out unharmed - to make Jewish converts more comfortable with new religion). Also has pagan styled postures and poses to make pagan converts more accepting. Christians very well used propaganda by doing this, supplanting pagan ideas and taking them for their own.
SCULPTURE:
Sculpture was secondary to Early Christian art. The concept of graven idols resonated strongest with actual statues. Sculpture as a result shuns life-size iterations of the human figure. Developed into shallow relief: "lace-like" surfaces. Moved away from large spatially impressive Roman and Greek statues.
Sarcophagi developed from their pagan ancestors. This example is Jonah and the sea monster- with another orant in the center with arms raised as with the catacomb ceiling.
CHURCH HOUSES:
Initially Christians met in private homes, only later having dedicated public meeting places. Expected due to persecution.
In Syria, a house was buried (to strengthen a defensive wall in 256CE) thus preserving one such meeting house. It is a typical Roman two story home. It had an atrium, but attached was also a designated space for baptisms. We see inside the lunettes a "good shepherd" figure, Adam and Eve on the lower left, and woman with candles proceeding toward a stone sarcophagus (three Mary's at the Tomb, where they meet an angel that says Christ is risen). These images are important because they reinforce the need of baptism - forgive original sin, resurrection.
Domus Ecclesiae: "house church"
Ecclesiae refers to a congregation of the church (but Greeks also used the word to describe political groups when assembled).
AFTER OFFICIAL RECOGNITION OF CHRISTIANITY
Almost overnight, they needed a new architectural style to be created to make the new official religion visible. Many imperially sponsored churches sprang up as Constantine oversaw this shift.
BASILICA:
Formed the basic model of church architecture in Western Europe. It was a Roman style of building - big and rectangular NAVE that had aisles lit by rows of CLERESTORY windows with an APSE at one end. I had a trussed roof. Altars were placed in the east, in front of the apse. The placement in the east shows the fact that Christianity is derived from many other religions from the area.
The greatest Constantine-built church was Old St. Peter's Basilica, in Rome. Replaced with the new basilica in the 16th century. Stood directly over the grave of St. Peter, covered by a BALDACCHINO. Apse in west of church, to accommodate site restrictions (centered on tomb). Visitors passed through an atrium, then a NARTHEX, or an entrance hall. Junction of nave and transept is where the altar stood.
At this time only dedicated and initiated (baptized) Christians could witness and participate in the mass. Everyone else could just listen. Even today it is referred to as the "Mystery" of the Mass.
CENTRAL PLAN STRUCTURES:
Round or polygonal structures capped by a dome. Reminiscent of Imperial tombs or mausoleums, they are often associated with burials. Constantine's daughter was buried in Santa Costanza, in Rome. Focus is put on central space, illuminated by clerestory windows, and twelve pairs of columns (four of which are higher, suggesting a cross). Circling the dome is an AMBULATORY. A ring-shaped aisle.
The difference between basilica and central structures is that the focus is either at the end of the aisle (basilica) or the center (central).
MOSAICS:
The sudden growth of Christian churches had a big impact on pictorial art of the time. Massive wall spaces had to be filled with images worthy of their framework. Out of this need emerged the early Christian wall mosaic.
Cycles of images were selected from the Old and New Testament - with the image lineage showing influences from Greco-Roman and North African paintings and images.
Many mosaics are shattered or lost, with only literary accounts providing us evidence as to their existence. Three structures in which the mosaic program is largely complete are the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the Orthodox Baptistry, and the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. (Ravenna, Ravenna, and Rome)
MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA PLACIDIA
Central plan in shapes of a Greek cross (equal length arms), with a simple brick (perhaps plastered) exterior that would heighten the impact of entering a gilded / marble / light-filled realm to evoke the Kingdom of God. The building is somewhat analogous to the ideal Christian - simple in external body and glorious in internal spirit. This was likely intentional.
The interior barrel vaults and dome are covered in mosaic. Above each vault, apostle flank a pair of doves and fountains (see slide): symbolic of souls drinking from the waters of paradise. In one lunette, St. Lawrence is beside a flame-racked grill, the tool of his martyrdom. A cabinet holding the four books of the gospel remind us and the viewers why he was martyred: refusing to surrender the "riches of the church." Here symbolically represented by the four gospels. The fact that books represented treasure (barring the obvious metaphor of the importance of the gospels) isn't strange, as books were objects of great luxury and wealth to both the church and empire.
Another lunette (next slide) shows the Good Shepherd, seated here in a fully-realized landscape, a departure from earlier catacomb paintings. The halo comes from representations of the emperor as sun-king, as the gold robes and purple scarf are symbols of imperial authority. The paradox of realism (hair, face, landscape, flock) against the abundance of gold portrayed signifies the human nature of Christ, but the equally divine nature he holds.
Roman and imperial wall paintings sought to create an illusion or "window" through the wall. The early Christians used gold tesserae to create a luminous realm of spiritual and celestial beings.
ORTHODOX BAPTISTRY
From the Christian House Baptistry evolved a new architectural need, a permanent structure to house and support baptisms. Eight sided polygonal structure that was domed. The eight sides link baptism and death (the world began on the 8th day. And Jesus was resurrected on the 8th day of the Passion). This was even paralleled in the Christian house (link to death/resurrection).
In the early church, baptism occurred only once a year, midnight on Easter Sunday - the day of the resurrection.
On the drum of the building, Old Testament prophets gaze down toward the visitor (not pictured). Dome above (see slide) shows apostles offering their crowns of martyrdom. In the center medallion, Christ is baptized, observed (and has his authority recognized) by a pagan river god. Looking up at the dome while being baptized must have had a profound impact on the pagans, who saw a visible link between their own experiences and the Son of God.
SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE
One year after Mary was declared Theotokos (Bearer of God) the first church to be dedicated to her was begun. Framed with pilasters, the entablature above the colonnade had 42 mosaic panels. These panels (see slide) illustrate the stories of the Old Testament. The need for narrative was as important as the need for symmetry here. For instance: Abraham, Isaac and the rest leave Canaan. On the right, Lot, and his two daughters, turn toward the city of Sodom.
The artist who made these panels faced the same task as he who made the column of Trajan. He needed to condense complex actions into basic forms able to be read at a distance, using formulas for "tree" or "house." Moreover, the literal gap between the two male the parting literal as well as metaphoric: Abraham was righteous, Sodom was evil.
ILLUSTRATED BOOKS
Papyrus was used until parchment (bleached animal hide) and vellum (a refined parchment) came along during the 2nd century BCE. These materials were able to bend/crease without breaking, allowing the creation of books, called a codex (1st century CE).
Vellum and parchment could hold rich colors and even gold, allowing complex "illuminations" to be added.
One of the earliest surviving books that illustrate the bible is an early 5th century fragment of the Quedlinburg Itala. Pictured here is Saul meeting Samuel. Visible under the flaking paint in this badly damaged fragment are the written instructions for the artist.
"You make the prophet speaking facing King Saul sacrificing." Apparently the artist was free to interpret these instructions as he saw fit. We know the artist also work on pagan works, such as the Aeneid. It raises questions as to what pagan motifs were carried over to Christian art, or the other way around.
SCULPTURE
Junius Bassus Sarcophagus: inscription tells us he was newly baptized. The idea of Christianity had obviously changed when a major state official proclaims his religion pictorially and literally through text. In the above center register, Christ is enthroned with his feet literally resting on Coelus, the pagan god of the heavens.
Christ is now depicted literally, accentuating his imperial nature. The overall style is that of a grand symbol, not meant to depict sweeping action but to recall a greater idea by "jogging our memory."
BYZANTINE ART
Early Byzantine
There is no clear cut timeline as to when Byzantine starts and Early Christian ends. The traits of the East and West Empires are difficult to differentiate prior to the 6th century. As the Western Empire declined, the East gained the role of cultural forerunner. When Justinian became emperor of the shift of focus was complete, he had made Constantinople the artistic as well as political capital of the Empire.
The political division that tore east and west apart also bore artistic differences. In the West, Celtic and Germanic people radically altered that portion of the empire to make it radically "European" where the East remained strongly Byzantine (with Greek and Mediterranean influences).
ARCHITECTURE
Ironically, the most well preserved architectural sites for Byzantine are are in Ravenna, Italy. Ravenna was the provincial capital of Italy under Justinian. Serves as a good microcosm of the empire as a whole.
The most important building in the Early Byzantine period is the church of San Vitale. Represents a building type derived from Constantinople - the octagonal plan with a circular core ringed by an ambulatory is a direct descendant of the Mausoleum of Santa Costanza in Rome however.
This is larger and more impressive than Costanza, there is a raised gallery above the aisle likely reserved for women - a practice still prevalent today. Domed, central-plan structures dominate the world of Othodox Christianity, just like the basilica dominated the medieval west.
The offset narthex may heighten the idea that you are passing from the physical to spiritual world - external space of the building to the interior.
San Vitale's link with the Byzantine court can be seen on two prominent mosaics flanking the altar. They depict Justinian and his empress, Theodora. They are accompanied by officials, clergy, ladies-in-waiting; as if about to enter a chapel in a palace.
The figures are tall and slim, almond shaped faces dominated by enormous eyes. They seem frozen in ceremony, only capable of performing their rituals and displaying their costume. No hint of movement or change. The green ground gives some basis of realism, but the unnatural golden background harken to a heavenly court.
The union of political and spiritual authority shown in these mosaics reflects a divine kingship, while also elevating the royal pair as patrons of the church. This places the emperor and empress at the liturgy every day, despite being thousands of miles away. The hem of Theodora's garment show the three magi - so too are the royal pair bringing offerings to the liturgy. Justinian brings bread, Theodora brings the chalice. The emperor is flanked by 12 attendants, and even harkens to Constantine through the addition of the shield with Chi Ro (paralleling Constantine's victory to Justinian's over Ravenna).
Among the surviving monuments of Justinian's reign in Constantinople, the most important is assuredly Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom). Built in only 5 years over a ruin of Constantine's church. In 1453 it was captured by the Turks and became a mosque, adding minarets and extra buttresses as well as large medallions with Islamic invocations on the interior (Allah, Muhammad flanking apse).
In the 20th century (turned into a museum) much of the original mosaic was uncovered, after having been painted over with whitewash.
The transition from square to dome is achieved through the use of pendentives. Hagia Sophia is the earliest example we have of practical pendentives, but likely invented earlier. The dome, then, seems to float above a row of closely spaced windows (which were not load bearing).
Historian to Justinian wrote: "whenever one enters this church to pray, he understands at once that it is not by any human power or skill, but by the influence of God, that this work has been so finely tuned." God is literally present due to the architectural wonder of the structure, the weightlessness of the dome.
SCULPTURE
Beyond the usual sarcophagi, early Byzantine sculpture consists mainly of reliefs in ivory and silver, which survive in considerable number.
Justinian as Conquerer: just like Augustus of prima porta breastplate, this relief tells (in Christian terms) the allegory of Justinian's victories. Victory appears twice: beside Justinian, and again as a statue in the hands of a roman official who was likely mirrored in the missing right panel. Foreign conquered people (even lions) pay homage to their conqueror below. A figure representing earth supports his foot, representing his claim over the world. His reign is blessed by heaven (literally, too, note sun moon and star) by Christ. This is a far departure from the calm philosopher of Marcus Aurelius mounted.
The Archangel Michael: may have been paired with another panel of Justinian, who likely commissioned it. There is an inscription that reads, "Receive these gifts, and having learned the cause...," which would continue on the other leaf naming the sins which should be forgiven.