Art History: Greek
Despite all previous works of art we've seen being immaculate and priceless representations of their culture, they appear foreign and alien to us. We don't see anything like it in our modern world. With Greek art, however, it is instantly recognizable as an ancestor of our stern civilization.
Greek temple looks like government buildings of our modern age, banks and college campuses. Greek statues look just like those we see today. Greek coins look like our modern coins do today.
THIS IS NO COINCIDENCE, western civilization purposely constructed itself in the image of classical Greece and Rome.
Three sources of Greek art: works themselves (small fraction of what once existed), Roman copies (could be an interpretation rather than a direct copy, or simply we do not know what the original looked like - we just have the copies), and literature.
Greeks were the first western people to write at length about their art and artists. Offers a glimpse at what contemporary Greeks thought were the most important works of their day.
Unifying all of these sources paints a complex and vivid picture of Greek society.
All non-Greeks were considered barbarians (bar-bar-bar-bar). Greece was the beacon of civilization in a world of dark mysticism. They were polytheistic with strong religious beliefs. Ideas about existence form modern philosophy.
First Greek speaking groups came to Greece around 2000 BCE. Culture dominated mainland Greece, Crete, and the Aegean islands. By the first millennium they had colonized Cyprus and Asia Minor.
Many sub cultures emerged within this new Greece, but maintained unity as a nation through language and common beliefs.
GEOMETRIC STYLE
Pottery: developed a standardized repertoire of vessel shapes. Each type was well adapted to its function. Artists were challenged to deal with the unique shapes associated with the vessels, and some artists specialized in paintings only specific types of vessel. Larger pots usually attracted more ambitious artists due to work space associated with them.
Decorated vessels with checkerboard patterns, triangles, and concentric circles among other geometric shapes. Toward 800 BCE human and animal figures appeared within the geometric framework.
DIPYLON VASE
Used as a grave marker, unusually large. Holes at bottom were to allow for libations (liquid offerings) to be filtered down to the deceased. In earlier centuries ashes were put into such vessels, the shape of which dictated what sex the deceased was. Females were in belly-handled amphorae (used for storing wine or oil). Men were buried in a neck-amphora. Kraters (mixing wine and water) were also used as grave markers.
The massive size of this example shown indicates the woman had considerable means (wealthy).
Width is half of its height, neck is half of the height of the body. Dominated by a MEANDER pattern, also known as a maze. Deer graze on neck above a triple meander, reclining beneath neck.
Narrative scene in middle. The deceased lies on a table, beneath a checkered shroud. Flanking figures have hands raised, a sign of lamentation. Geometric forms (triangles make up the body, etc).
Sene represents the prothesis, part of Athenian funeral tradition where the dead lay in state and public mourning took place. Lavish funeral was an occasion to show off money. Would even hire professional mourners for the event. The image of the funeral isn't just a representation of the act of burial, but a display of how high the woman was in Greek society.
TRIPOD CAULDRONS / GRIFFIN
During geometric period, Greeks would construct bronze tripod cauldrons in sanctuaries dedicated to the gods. It was an act of piety, but also an excuse to show off wealth, some reached monumental proportions. Around the edges of bowls, PROTOMES projected out. They were often shaped as mystical creatures (sirens, griffins).
The griffin shown seems to stand watch over the dedication to the gods (attached to the vessel). Upright ears and knob on top of the head contrast the strong yet graceful curve of the neck, head, eyes, and mouth.
ARCHAIC ART
During 7th and 6th centuries BCE, the idea of the polis was refined. Once merely a citadel or place of refuge during an attack, they now developed into an identity of the community. Many different governmental styles (democracy, oligarchy, tyranny, etc).
Physical attributes of the city-states also changed:
7th century: Started building temples out of stone, rather than wood. Earliest were built at Corinth, in a style called Doric (named for e region it originated from).
Ionic style soon developed on Aegean islands.
Corinthian style didn't develop until the 4th century BCE.
All of this architectural change prompted Greeks to write treatises on the subject, laying out rules and guidelines as to how to properly construct a "perfect" temple, etc.
Cella: main chamber within a Doric or Ionic temple. Housed an image of the god, framed by a colonnade (peristyle). Approaching the cells is a porch, or PRONAOS. These temples were called Peripteral temples.
Most Greek temples orientated east, facing the rising sun.
COMPARISON OF STYLES: Doric and Ionic
DORIC
Many of the terms are in common usage today. Temples were on elevated platforms called stereobate and stylobate. Doric columns consist of a shaft (with flutes) and a capital.
Entablature consists of all horizontal elements laid across peristyle. Includes the frieze, which comprise triglyphs (architectural element) and metopes (relief). A cornice projects out supporting the pediment (triangle) and roof.
IONIC
Ionic columns are more slender and taper less - while having the characteristic volute (scroll). The temples themselves have continuous friezes, not broken up into triglyphs and metopes.
Both styles had columns made out of segments called drums (rarely single pieces). Wooden roof beams coved with terra cotta tiles, fire a constant threat. It is speculated that these temples came about (so quickly and distinctly) due to three major influences: Mycenaean and Egyptian stone architecture, and Pre-Archaic Greek wood / mud architecture. Greek cella may be descendant of Mycenaean Megaron.
TEMPLE OF HERA I (left) & II (right)
Entasis - swelling 1/3 way up columns to give illusion that the columns are bulging under the weight of the superstructure. Compressed energy waiting to be released.
Hera II is best preserved of all Doric temples.
STONE SCULPTURE
Greeks apparently carved wooden statues around the eighth century BCE. These obviously have not survived. Like the architects, sculptors decided to begin using marble so their work would last (650 BCE). So began one of the great traditions of Greek art. Greeks perhaps were allowed to study colossal Egyptian statues to master the techniques used to work in stone.
KORE AND KOUROS (maiden, korai) and (youth, kouroi)
Techniques and proportions of Egypt are evident. Frontal rigidity, four distinct sides (reflecting the form of the block from which they are carved). Left foot forward, fists clenched, stylized wigs, broad shouldered slim male.
Differences: free standing! No back slab. First of their kind in history that stand on their own. Negative space between legs and arms. Large stylized eyes, arched eyebrows - much more stylized than Egyptian. Public nudity acceptable for males, not females.
Some found in sanctuaries or cemeteries, but most were repurposed - original usage unclear. Some inscribed, "So-and-so made me" or with dedications to gods (mostly Apollo) which were votive offerings in this case. Males have been found over female graves in rare cases. Unsure whether they are grave markers, donors, deities, victors at games.
No clear effort to individualize statues as portraits. What is clear is that only the wealthy we're able to commission them, large scale valuable marble.
THE MORE STYLIZED THE STATUE, THE EARLIER IT WAS MADE.
ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE
Soon after they began building temples in stone, the Greeks also started to decorate temples with architectural sculpture.
To fill the unique spaces of the pediments and other features, sculptors chose dynamic poses to fill the entire surface with statuary.
TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS AT KORFU
The archaic ancestor to later Greek architectural sculpture, the pediment is decorated with the triangular sculpture - acts as a screen to protect the wooden beams that support the roof. They are technically high relief, but are so strongly undercut that they are nearly detached from the back.
Although the temple was dedicated to Artemis, the main pediment figure is the gorgon medusa. Medusa was there either as a guardian figure, or to show Artemis' control of nature. Two large feline creatures flank medusa, in classic heraldic pose.
Pegasus (left) and Chrysaor (right) rest between the cats and medusa. Synoptic narrative: characters appear multiple times to allude to the passage of time. Pegasus and Chrysaor cannot exist, her head is still intact. These two are at a smaller scale, in order to fit them into the scene.
Statues (usually terra cotta) were often placed on corners of structure and above pediment. CARYATIDS would sometimes be used on some ionic structures in place of columns supporting a porch.
TEMPLE OF APHAIA AT AEGINA
Original east pediment probably destroyed by Persians when they took the island in 490 BCE. Later replaced. Both pediments show narratives of the sack and siege of Troy. Pairing of subjects shows the importance of the role local heroes played in history. AEGINA and SALAMIS (alliance of Greek city-states
Both figures are fully in the round, independent of the pediment they sit in front of. East pediment figures found in pieces on the ground, location is speculated (see figure), but relative positions can be easily determined.
Their heights vary, but NOT their scale. Athens stands in the middle, overseeing the battle between Greeks and Trojans. Kneeling arches shoot across the pediment to unite the action. Each figure is unique, but symmetry governs the overall need for a design to adorn the pediment.
In the short decades that separate east and west pediments, we can see massive leaps toward naturalism in sculpture. As they sink down toward death, their poses fulfill the awkward needs of the space in which they occupy. The later warrior (east) is far more organic and modeled.
VASE PAINTING: Art of the symposium
New archaic style, elaborately painted vessels covered in figures from myth and legends as well as everyday life. The ones you'll be shown were used to hold wine, but only on special occasions - they used far simpler vessels for everyday usage. Decorated vessels were reserved for the SYMPOSIUM. A bunch of dudes lounging around with a krater full of wine playing word games, debating, poetry, storytelling, and music. The event often ended in lovemaking, which is a common theme on such vessels.
After middle of 6th century BCE, the finest vessels started bearing names of those who made or painted them - a source of pride. Scholars today can identify the vessels by their unique styles, despite them already having their names.
BLACK FIGURED TECHNIQUE, the entire silhouette was painted against a reddish clay background, and the interior details were incised with a needle like tool. White and purple paint were the added to select areas of specific importance or interest. This also marked a shift to export: many black figured vessels were found in Etruscan tombs.
ACHILLES AND AJAX, an amphora by Exekias
No other written literary records of this event occurring. Symmetrical around the table in the center. Shields leaning against the campaign tent they sit within. Spent a lot of time on the detail of the intricate cloaks.
The power of this scene is derived from e tension - stole a moment away from a fierce war, poised on the edge of their stools, feet looking like they're about to jump at any moment. An inscription in front of Ajax (right), reads "three". Achilles (left), calls out, "four," making him the winner.
The contemporary Greek viewer would see the irony, even if you do not - Achilles will die while Ajax must bring his friends body back to camp, before killing himself in despair.
RED FIGURED TECHNIQUE
Opposite of black figured technique: paint negative space, leave figures bare clay - paint details. Gradually replaced older technique in 520 BCE. The change eventually moves away from profile view as well.
DANCING REVELERS, an amphora by Euthymides.
No longer profile, freedom of brush portrays lively dancers. Artist was confident in refining human anatomy in such poses, the shoulder blades of the central figure are not level - they react to his raised arm. Had a keen understanding of the workings of human anatomy. Euthymides was so pleased with his work, he signed it as a taunt to his fellow painter, "As never Euphronios."
THE CLASSICAL AGE
Beginning of the fifth century BCE brought crisis. Ionian cities rebelled against their Persian overlords. Athens (powerhouse) came to their support, persia invaded Greek mainland under Darius I. Battle of Marathon at 490, 10,000 Athenians and a Battalion of Plataeans repulsed a force of 90,000 Persians. Ten years later, under Xerxes command, Spartans defeated by a much larger force. Persians sacked Athens. Athenians finally pushed them out at salamis.
The destruction of statues, temples, etc by the Persians marks the end of the archaic age - ushers in Classical Greek age. Starts at end of Persian wars, until the death of Alexander the Great (late 4th c.)
During this time we see all the big Greek heavyweights: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Sophocles, Euripides, and PERIKLES. (Mid fifth century he was concerned with beautifying the ruined city's highest point, or Akropolis: see below)
CLASSICAL SCULPTURE
Among the wreckage of the Persian sacking of Athens, one statue stands out among the rest: the Kritios Boy. It is significantly different from archaic kouroi: first known statue that stands entirely on its own (archaic was really an "arrested walk" with weight evenly on both feet), it allows the boys weight to shift slightly creating a calculated asymmetry. Knee of forward leg is lower than the other, right hip is thrust downward and in - left hip is up and out. IT IS NOT A RIGID, STRAIGHT, VERTICAL LINE.
He not only stands, he stands at EASE. Gently S-curve characteristic of CONTRAPPOSTO (leg that carries the weight is the engaged leg, the other is the free leg). This showed that when a body part is engaged, the rest of the body responds (unlike west pediment sculpture of dying warrior). HE SEEMS CAPABLE OF ACTION.
ZEUS OR POSEIDON
The Kritios boy marks a change in Greek art. It began a drive to portray movement in sculpture - no longer the rigid forms associated with archaic Greece (or even Egypt before it). This representation is a hallmark of Classical sculpture.
This magnificent bronze nude was found in the sea near Greece's coast, and illustrates the new representation of movement well. Scholars identify the seven foot tall statue as either Zeus throwing a thunderbolt or Poseidon hurling a trident. In the same figure the artist captures both a good portrayal of movement while making the figure look solid and stable. The result is the grandeur of a deity.
The sculpture not only shows that the artist knew the dynamics of the human body in portraying proportion, but also the strength of the bronze - having the outstretched and unsupported arms. (LOST WAX PROCESS)
DISKOBOLOS
Made of bronze, huge range of movement - whole series of actions associated with throwing of the discus captured in one pose. Like many Greek originals, all we have now are the roman copies.
THE DORYPHOROS: IDEALS OF PROPORTION AND HARMONY
Within a half century of the Kritios boy, sculptors were already exploring the limits of the body's articulation and movement. A sculptor, Polykleitos, from Argos, made the Doryphoros (spear bearer). This is also a roman copy of a Greek original.
Contrapposto stance is much more pronounced, head turned to reinforce this. Polykleitos made it proportionally perfect, engaged leg balancing engaged arm; free leg balancing free arm. An Ancient Greek writer even referred to his style as KANON. Egyptian artists had earlier notions of guidelines, but for Polykleitos it was philosophical. He saw mathematical harmony as a supreme goal. (Plato later made his statements about mathematical perfection influencing beauty.
Not sure how much information was lost in translation from the bronze original to the marble copy - bronze originals are magnificently rare. So when two over-life-size statues were found in the sea near Riace, Italy, in 1972 it caused a huge commotion.
RIACE (ree-ah-che) WARRIOR "A"
State of preservation is very good, showing off the exceptional workmanship. Ivory and glass eyes, bronze eyelashes, and copper lips and nipples. Statue A has silver teeth. Employ various textures to reflect light not able to be done in marble.
THE ATHENIAN AKROPOLIS
The Akropolis has been fortified since Mycenaean times (1250 BCE). During archaic times, was home to at least one large temple dedicated to the city's patron goddess. In 480 BCE Persians destroyed much of what lay there, left in ruin for 30 years. PERIKLES wanted to make Athens the envy of the Mediterranean - had a population of 150,000 (pop of New Orleans in 2006 after Katrina).
Perikles' projects were approved by the democratic council, and became the epitome of the height of classic Greek art.
Rendering of Akropolis
Yanni, a famous composer, played a well known concert within the Akropolis, which peaked as #1 New Age Album in 1994 CE. The resulting VHS recording is the second best-selling music video of all time, bested only by Michael Jackson's Thriller.
THE PARTHENON
Nashville Tennessee. Exact 1:1 replica, including statue of Athens.
Dominant feature on the Akropolis, the temple is the only structure to be completed before the Peloponnesian War. Took 15 years to build, Perikles funded it in part by the Delian League, group of states allied with Athens for defense. Written records state Perikles adorned the city, "like a harlot with precious stones, statues, and temples costing a thousand talents." A talent was a measurement of mass similar to the amount required to fill an amphora.
Clearly the other states thought this was a weak move on Greece's part.
A ratio of 9:4 was the governing principle behind the Parthenon's proportions. Eight columns across facade, seventeen along sides. Ratio also applied to distance between columns. Not just design convenience, but an effort to produce mathematical / beautiful harmony. Swelling in center, gives energetic dynamic quality.
Ionic style clearly present within the temple - not 100% Doric.
LATE CLASSICAL PERIOD
End of 5th century, Athens' power on the decline. Conflict between Athens and the Peloponnesian cities of Corinth and Sparta escalated into the Peloponnesian war (Athens lost). All city states at odds with one another.
CIVIC AND SACRED
Two noteworthy changes in monumental architecture: 1) shift in emphasis, civic buildings bigger and more splendid, not just temples. 2) Corinthian capital developed.
Emphasis: theaters are a good example of this shift in emphasis. Where previously you just needed a hillside to sit on, the idea of a theatre began to take architectural form. Row upon row of seats were built in stone - open air had no roof to support which would hinder views. Familiar layout is a testament to its success. Astonishing feature is the acoustics, a guy in the back could hear a whisper due to the funnel shape.
Tomb at Halikarnassos
Present day turkey, the tendency toward civic monuments as previously stated resulted in a vast tomb built for the satrap of the Persians, Mausolos. The structure was so famous (seven wonders of the ancient world), the word mausoleum is still used today to describe a huge tomb.
Earthquake took down upper level in 13th century CE, Knights of St. John dismantled it to refortify a local castle in 16th century.
Ionic colonnade, high podium, pyramidal roof. Grouping of these elements is evidence to a growing diversity in architecture. Also a propagandistic function - Greek peristyle, Egyptian pyramid, Lycian monumental tomb building.
Corinthian
The other major change to occur late 5th century. Elaborate substitute for Ionic. Inverted bell shape covered in curly shoots of acanthus plant. Originally only used inside Greek temples (conservative Greeks? Sacred veggies?). 2nd century BCE Corinthian columns appeared outside.
LATE CLASSICAL SCULPTURE
Shift in mood is visible in sculpture: less optimistic view of mans place in the universe. As seen in Herakles/Telephos: lion skin tells us it's one of the two. Fleshy face and smooth planes hallmarks of classical art - what is new is the sculptor carved away above the eyes to create a dark and dramatic shadow. Coupled with the slightly parted lips and turned head, this head shows great emotion.
Aphrodite of Knidos
First nude female statue of a goddess in Greek world. Previous artists portrayed a gods majesty, Praxiteles gave them a playful sensuousness, that might suggest their willful capriciousness toward mortals. People came from all over to see the nude Aphrodite. Previously they wore clinging garment, which in itself was nearly nude - the draw of this specific piece may be its blatant eroticism, which is based on the viewer stumbling upon the goddess of love bathing. Viewed from all sides. This is a roman copy.
A more complex statue is a group representing Hermes and the infant Dionysus. Super-emphasized contrapposto. Anatomy, which was previously clearly defined, is blurred to suggest a youthful sensuousness rather than athletic perfection. Good contrast in highly polished skin against the texture of the hair. Humorous quality typical of Praxiteles' work, dangling a bunch of grapes in front of the god of wine. Hermes was tasked by Zeus to care for Dionysus after mortal woman turned to ashes after looking upon Zeus.
THEATRICALITY IN ARHCITECTURE
Sweeping vistas, impressive building sites, surprise revelations. A good balance to the scholarly traditions of proportions and math. The temple of Apollo was still unfinished by the time of the Romans, and is a good example of theatric architecture. Built on site of old archaic temple Persians destroyed in 494 BCE. The exterior was in a grove of trees, with no deviations from other large scale ionic temples. Visitors wouldn't expect the interior to be different.
Cella raised 5 feet off ground, that an oracle likely uttered prophesies. Dark tunnels leading down, but suddenly opening to a sun bathed courtyard. "Labyrinth" stairs leading out of courtyard, impressive view when facing back toward tunnels. The fact that the temple is incomplete gives us an insight into construction methods - carved shallow diagrams of capitals, architecture into the wall. They would have a plan on the building, and polish it off after the structure was complete.
HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE
Heightened drama and viewer involvement are hallmarks of this period. Interest in portraiture develops, as opposed to kouroi and korai of archaic period - and classical sculpture strove for a timeless ideal, not realistic portraiture. Alexander the Great really started the movement, insisting his sculpture be made, recognizing the need for constant visual identification.
Engaging the viewer, full of emotion. This is a Gaul, no longer are enemies represented by analogy of myth, he has shaggy hair, mustache, and a torque. No longer suggests inferiority of enemies - he dies nobly. Blood pours from a wound in his chest. Viewer is drawn to the private-ness of the scene, he is dying alone, we are compelled to watch.
Hellenistic Painting
Battle of Issos, Alexander the Great. Darius and the fleeing Persians on the right, Alexander on the left. Fellow the four color scheme that was used at the time (telling us it is a faithful recreation in Pompeii) using yellow, red, black, and white.
Despite all previous works of art we've seen being immaculate and priceless representations of their culture, they appear foreign and alien to us. We don't see anything like it in our modern world. With Greek art, however, it is instantly recognizable as an ancestor of our stern civilization.
Greek temple looks like government buildings of our modern age, banks and college campuses. Greek statues look just like those we see today. Greek coins look like our modern coins do today.
THIS IS NO COINCIDENCE, western civilization purposely constructed itself in the image of classical Greece and Rome.
Three sources of Greek art: works themselves (small fraction of what once existed), Roman copies (could be an interpretation rather than a direct copy, or simply we do not know what the original looked like - we just have the copies), and literature.
Greeks were the first western people to write at length about their art and artists. Offers a glimpse at what contemporary Greeks thought were the most important works of their day.
Unifying all of these sources paints a complex and vivid picture of Greek society.
All non-Greeks were considered barbarians (bar-bar-bar-bar). Greece was the beacon of civilization in a world of dark mysticism. They were polytheistic with strong religious beliefs. Ideas about existence form modern philosophy.
First Greek speaking groups came to Greece around 2000 BCE. Culture dominated mainland Greece, Crete, and the Aegean islands. By the first millennium they had colonized Cyprus and Asia Minor.
Many sub cultures emerged within this new Greece, but maintained unity as a nation through language and common beliefs.
GEOMETRIC STYLE
Pottery: developed a standardized repertoire of vessel shapes. Each type was well adapted to its function. Artists were challenged to deal with the unique shapes associated with the vessels, and some artists specialized in paintings only specific types of vessel. Larger pots usually attracted more ambitious artists due to work space associated with them.
Decorated vessels with checkerboard patterns, triangles, and concentric circles among other geometric shapes. Toward 800 BCE human and animal figures appeared within the geometric framework.
DIPYLON VASE
Used as a grave marker, unusually large. Holes at bottom were to allow for libations (liquid offerings) to be filtered down to the deceased. In earlier centuries ashes were put into such vessels, the shape of which dictated what sex the deceased was. Females were in belly-handled amphorae (used for storing wine or oil). Men were buried in a neck-amphora. Kraters (mixing wine and water) were also used as grave markers.
The massive size of this example shown indicates the woman had considerable means (wealthy).
Width is half of its height, neck is half of the height of the body. Dominated by a MEANDER pattern, also known as a maze. Deer graze on neck above a triple meander, reclining beneath neck.
Narrative scene in middle. The deceased lies on a table, beneath a checkered shroud. Flanking figures have hands raised, a sign of lamentation. Geometric forms (triangles make up the body, etc).
Sene represents the prothesis, part of Athenian funeral tradition where the dead lay in state and public mourning took place. Lavish funeral was an occasion to show off money. Would even hire professional mourners for the event. The image of the funeral isn't just a representation of the act of burial, but a display of how high the woman was in Greek society.
TRIPOD CAULDRONS / GRIFFIN
During geometric period, Greeks would construct bronze tripod cauldrons in sanctuaries dedicated to the gods. It was an act of piety, but also an excuse to show off wealth, some reached monumental proportions. Around the edges of bowls, PROTOMES projected out. They were often shaped as mystical creatures (sirens, griffins).
The griffin shown seems to stand watch over the dedication to the gods (attached to the vessel). Upright ears and knob on top of the head contrast the strong yet graceful curve of the neck, head, eyes, and mouth.
ARCHAIC ART
During 7th and 6th centuries BCE, the idea of the polis was refined. Once merely a citadel or place of refuge during an attack, they now developed into an identity of the community. Many different governmental styles (democracy, oligarchy, tyranny, etc).
Physical attributes of the city-states also changed:
7th century: Started building temples out of stone, rather than wood. Earliest were built at Corinth, in a style called Doric (named for e region it originated from).
Ionic style soon developed on Aegean islands.
Corinthian style didn't develop until the 4th century BCE.
All of this architectural change prompted Greeks to write treatises on the subject, laying out rules and guidelines as to how to properly construct a "perfect" temple, etc.
Cella: main chamber within a Doric or Ionic temple. Housed an image of the god, framed by a colonnade (peristyle). Approaching the cells is a porch, or PRONAOS. These temples were called Peripteral temples.
Most Greek temples orientated east, facing the rising sun.
COMPARISON OF STYLES: Doric and Ionic
DORIC
Many of the terms are in common usage today. Temples were on elevated platforms called stereobate and stylobate. Doric columns consist of a shaft (with flutes) and a capital.
Entablature consists of all horizontal elements laid across peristyle. Includes the frieze, which comprise triglyphs (architectural element) and metopes (relief). A cornice projects out supporting the pediment (triangle) and roof.
IONIC
Ionic columns are more slender and taper less - while having the characteristic volute (scroll). The temples themselves have continuous friezes, not broken up into triglyphs and metopes.
Both styles had columns made out of segments called drums (rarely single pieces). Wooden roof beams coved with terra cotta tiles, fire a constant threat. It is speculated that these temples came about (so quickly and distinctly) due to three major influences: Mycenaean and Egyptian stone architecture, and Pre-Archaic Greek wood / mud architecture. Greek cella may be descendant of Mycenaean Megaron.
TEMPLE OF HERA I (left) & II (right)
Entasis - swelling 1/3 way up columns to give illusion that the columns are bulging under the weight of the superstructure. Compressed energy waiting to be released.
Hera II is best preserved of all Doric temples.
STONE SCULPTURE
Greeks apparently carved wooden statues around the eighth century BCE. These obviously have not survived. Like the architects, sculptors decided to begin using marble so their work would last (650 BCE). So began one of the great traditions of Greek art. Greeks perhaps were allowed to study colossal Egyptian statues to master the techniques used to work in stone.
KORE AND KOUROS (maiden, korai) and (youth, kouroi)
Techniques and proportions of Egypt are evident. Frontal rigidity, four distinct sides (reflecting the form of the block from which they are carved). Left foot forward, fists clenched, stylized wigs, broad shouldered slim male.
Differences: free standing! No back slab. First of their kind in history that stand on their own. Negative space between legs and arms. Large stylized eyes, arched eyebrows - much more stylized than Egyptian. Public nudity acceptable for males, not females.
Some found in sanctuaries or cemeteries, but most were repurposed - original usage unclear. Some inscribed, "So-and-so made me" or with dedications to gods (mostly Apollo) which were votive offerings in this case. Males have been found over female graves in rare cases. Unsure whether they are grave markers, donors, deities, victors at games.
No clear effort to individualize statues as portraits. What is clear is that only the wealthy we're able to commission them, large scale valuable marble.
THE MORE STYLIZED THE STATUE, THE EARLIER IT WAS MADE.
ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE
Soon after they began building temples in stone, the Greeks also started to decorate temples with architectural sculpture.
To fill the unique spaces of the pediments and other features, sculptors chose dynamic poses to fill the entire surface with statuary.
TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS AT KORFU
The archaic ancestor to later Greek architectural sculpture, the pediment is decorated with the triangular sculpture - acts as a screen to protect the wooden beams that support the roof. They are technically high relief, but are so strongly undercut that they are nearly detached from the back.
Although the temple was dedicated to Artemis, the main pediment figure is the gorgon medusa. Medusa was there either as a guardian figure, or to show Artemis' control of nature. Two large feline creatures flank medusa, in classic heraldic pose.
Pegasus (left) and Chrysaor (right) rest between the cats and medusa. Synoptic narrative: characters appear multiple times to allude to the passage of time. Pegasus and Chrysaor cannot exist, her head is still intact. These two are at a smaller scale, in order to fit them into the scene.
Statues (usually terra cotta) were often placed on corners of structure and above pediment. CARYATIDS would sometimes be used on some ionic structures in place of columns supporting a porch.
TEMPLE OF APHAIA AT AEGINA
Original east pediment probably destroyed by Persians when they took the island in 490 BCE. Later replaced. Both pediments show narratives of the sack and siege of Troy. Pairing of subjects shows the importance of the role local heroes played in history. AEGINA and SALAMIS (alliance of Greek city-states
Both figures are fully in the round, independent of the pediment they sit in front of. East pediment figures found in pieces on the ground, location is speculated (see figure), but relative positions can be easily determined.
Their heights vary, but NOT their scale. Athens stands in the middle, overseeing the battle between Greeks and Trojans. Kneeling arches shoot across the pediment to unite the action. Each figure is unique, but symmetry governs the overall need for a design to adorn the pediment.
In the short decades that separate east and west pediments, we can see massive leaps toward naturalism in sculpture. As they sink down toward death, their poses fulfill the awkward needs of the space in which they occupy. The later warrior (east) is far more organic and modeled.
VASE PAINTING: Art of the symposium
New archaic style, elaborately painted vessels covered in figures from myth and legends as well as everyday life. The ones you'll be shown were used to hold wine, but only on special occasions - they used far simpler vessels for everyday usage. Decorated vessels were reserved for the SYMPOSIUM. A bunch of dudes lounging around with a krater full of wine playing word games, debating, poetry, storytelling, and music. The event often ended in lovemaking, which is a common theme on such vessels.
After middle of 6th century BCE, the finest vessels started bearing names of those who made or painted them - a source of pride. Scholars today can identify the vessels by their unique styles, despite them already having their names.
BLACK FIGURED TECHNIQUE, the entire silhouette was painted against a reddish clay background, and the interior details were incised with a needle like tool. White and purple paint were the added to select areas of specific importance or interest. This also marked a shift to export: many black figured vessels were found in Etruscan tombs.
ACHILLES AND AJAX, an amphora by Exekias
No other written literary records of this event occurring. Symmetrical around the table in the center. Shields leaning against the campaign tent they sit within. Spent a lot of time on the detail of the intricate cloaks.
The power of this scene is derived from e tension - stole a moment away from a fierce war, poised on the edge of their stools, feet looking like they're about to jump at any moment. An inscription in front of Ajax (right), reads "three". Achilles (left), calls out, "four," making him the winner.
The contemporary Greek viewer would see the irony, even if you do not - Achilles will die while Ajax must bring his friends body back to camp, before killing himself in despair.
RED FIGURED TECHNIQUE
Opposite of black figured technique: paint negative space, leave figures bare clay - paint details. Gradually replaced older technique in 520 BCE. The change eventually moves away from profile view as well.
DANCING REVELERS, an amphora by Euthymides.
No longer profile, freedom of brush portrays lively dancers. Artist was confident in refining human anatomy in such poses, the shoulder blades of the central figure are not level - they react to his raised arm. Had a keen understanding of the workings of human anatomy. Euthymides was so pleased with his work, he signed it as a taunt to his fellow painter, "As never Euphronios."
THE CLASSICAL AGE
Beginning of the fifth century BCE brought crisis. Ionian cities rebelled against their Persian overlords. Athens (powerhouse) came to their support, persia invaded Greek mainland under Darius I. Battle of Marathon at 490, 10,000 Athenians and a Battalion of Plataeans repulsed a force of 90,000 Persians. Ten years later, under Xerxes command, Spartans defeated by a much larger force. Persians sacked Athens. Athenians finally pushed them out at salamis.
The destruction of statues, temples, etc by the Persians marks the end of the archaic age - ushers in Classical Greek age. Starts at end of Persian wars, until the death of Alexander the Great (late 4th c.)
During this time we see all the big Greek heavyweights: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Sophocles, Euripides, and PERIKLES. (Mid fifth century he was concerned with beautifying the ruined city's highest point, or Akropolis: see below)
CLASSICAL SCULPTURE
Among the wreckage of the Persian sacking of Athens, one statue stands out among the rest: the Kritios Boy. It is significantly different from archaic kouroi: first known statue that stands entirely on its own (archaic was really an "arrested walk" with weight evenly on both feet), it allows the boys weight to shift slightly creating a calculated asymmetry. Knee of forward leg is lower than the other, right hip is thrust downward and in - left hip is up and out. IT IS NOT A RIGID, STRAIGHT, VERTICAL LINE.
He not only stands, he stands at EASE. Gently S-curve characteristic of CONTRAPPOSTO (leg that carries the weight is the engaged leg, the other is the free leg). This showed that when a body part is engaged, the rest of the body responds (unlike west pediment sculpture of dying warrior). HE SEEMS CAPABLE OF ACTION.
ZEUS OR POSEIDON
The Kritios boy marks a change in Greek art. It began a drive to portray movement in sculpture - no longer the rigid forms associated with archaic Greece (or even Egypt before it). This representation is a hallmark of Classical sculpture.
This magnificent bronze nude was found in the sea near Greece's coast, and illustrates the new representation of movement well. Scholars identify the seven foot tall statue as either Zeus throwing a thunderbolt or Poseidon hurling a trident. In the same figure the artist captures both a good portrayal of movement while making the figure look solid and stable. The result is the grandeur of a deity.
The sculpture not only shows that the artist knew the dynamics of the human body in portraying proportion, but also the strength of the bronze - having the outstretched and unsupported arms. (LOST WAX PROCESS)
DISKOBOLOS
Made of bronze, huge range of movement - whole series of actions associated with throwing of the discus captured in one pose. Like many Greek originals, all we have now are the roman copies.
THE DORYPHOROS: IDEALS OF PROPORTION AND HARMONY
Within a half century of the Kritios boy, sculptors were already exploring the limits of the body's articulation and movement. A sculptor, Polykleitos, from Argos, made the Doryphoros (spear bearer). This is also a roman copy of a Greek original.
Contrapposto stance is much more pronounced, head turned to reinforce this. Polykleitos made it proportionally perfect, engaged leg balancing engaged arm; free leg balancing free arm. An Ancient Greek writer even referred to his style as KANON. Egyptian artists had earlier notions of guidelines, but for Polykleitos it was philosophical. He saw mathematical harmony as a supreme goal. (Plato later made his statements about mathematical perfection influencing beauty.
Not sure how much information was lost in translation from the bronze original to the marble copy - bronze originals are magnificently rare. So when two over-life-size statues were found in the sea near Riace, Italy, in 1972 it caused a huge commotion.
RIACE (ree-ah-che) WARRIOR "A"
State of preservation is very good, showing off the exceptional workmanship. Ivory and glass eyes, bronze eyelashes, and copper lips and nipples. Statue A has silver teeth. Employ various textures to reflect light not able to be done in marble.
THE ATHENIAN AKROPOLIS
The Akropolis has been fortified since Mycenaean times (1250 BCE). During archaic times, was home to at least one large temple dedicated to the city's patron goddess. In 480 BCE Persians destroyed much of what lay there, left in ruin for 30 years. PERIKLES wanted to make Athens the envy of the Mediterranean - had a population of 150,000 (pop of New Orleans in 2006 after Katrina).
Perikles' projects were approved by the democratic council, and became the epitome of the height of classic Greek art.
Rendering of Akropolis
Yanni, a famous composer, played a well known concert within the Akropolis, which peaked as #1 New Age Album in 1994 CE. The resulting VHS recording is the second best-selling music video of all time, bested only by Michael Jackson's Thriller.
THE PARTHENON
Nashville Tennessee. Exact 1:1 replica, including statue of Athens.
Dominant feature on the Akropolis, the temple is the only structure to be completed before the Peloponnesian War. Took 15 years to build, Perikles funded it in part by the Delian League, group of states allied with Athens for defense. Written records state Perikles adorned the city, "like a harlot with precious stones, statues, and temples costing a thousand talents." A talent was a measurement of mass similar to the amount required to fill an amphora.
Clearly the other states thought this was a weak move on Greece's part.
A ratio of 9:4 was the governing principle behind the Parthenon's proportions. Eight columns across facade, seventeen along sides. Ratio also applied to distance between columns. Not just design convenience, but an effort to produce mathematical / beautiful harmony. Swelling in center, gives energetic dynamic quality.
Ionic style clearly present within the temple - not 100% Doric.
LATE CLASSICAL PERIOD
End of 5th century, Athens' power on the decline. Conflict between Athens and the Peloponnesian cities of Corinth and Sparta escalated into the Peloponnesian war (Athens lost). All city states at odds with one another.
CIVIC AND SACRED
Two noteworthy changes in monumental architecture: 1) shift in emphasis, civic buildings bigger and more splendid, not just temples. 2) Corinthian capital developed.
Emphasis: theaters are a good example of this shift in emphasis. Where previously you just needed a hillside to sit on, the idea of a theatre began to take architectural form. Row upon row of seats were built in stone - open air had no roof to support which would hinder views. Familiar layout is a testament to its success. Astonishing feature is the acoustics, a guy in the back could hear a whisper due to the funnel shape.
Tomb at Halikarnassos
Present day turkey, the tendency toward civic monuments as previously stated resulted in a vast tomb built for the satrap of the Persians, Mausolos. The structure was so famous (seven wonders of the ancient world), the word mausoleum is still used today to describe a huge tomb.
Earthquake took down upper level in 13th century CE, Knights of St. John dismantled it to refortify a local castle in 16th century.
Ionic colonnade, high podium, pyramidal roof. Grouping of these elements is evidence to a growing diversity in architecture. Also a propagandistic function - Greek peristyle, Egyptian pyramid, Lycian monumental tomb building.
Corinthian
The other major change to occur late 5th century. Elaborate substitute for Ionic. Inverted bell shape covered in curly shoots of acanthus plant. Originally only used inside Greek temples (conservative Greeks? Sacred veggies?). 2nd century BCE Corinthian columns appeared outside.
LATE CLASSICAL SCULPTURE
Shift in mood is visible in sculpture: less optimistic view of mans place in the universe. As seen in Herakles/Telephos: lion skin tells us it's one of the two. Fleshy face and smooth planes hallmarks of classical art - what is new is the sculptor carved away above the eyes to create a dark and dramatic shadow. Coupled with the slightly parted lips and turned head, this head shows great emotion.
Aphrodite of Knidos
First nude female statue of a goddess in Greek world. Previous artists portrayed a gods majesty, Praxiteles gave them a playful sensuousness, that might suggest their willful capriciousness toward mortals. People came from all over to see the nude Aphrodite. Previously they wore clinging garment, which in itself was nearly nude - the draw of this specific piece may be its blatant eroticism, which is based on the viewer stumbling upon the goddess of love bathing. Viewed from all sides. This is a roman copy.
A more complex statue is a group representing Hermes and the infant Dionysus. Super-emphasized contrapposto. Anatomy, which was previously clearly defined, is blurred to suggest a youthful sensuousness rather than athletic perfection. Good contrast in highly polished skin against the texture of the hair. Humorous quality typical of Praxiteles' work, dangling a bunch of grapes in front of the god of wine. Hermes was tasked by Zeus to care for Dionysus after mortal woman turned to ashes after looking upon Zeus.
THEATRICALITY IN ARHCITECTURE
Sweeping vistas, impressive building sites, surprise revelations. A good balance to the scholarly traditions of proportions and math. The temple of Apollo was still unfinished by the time of the Romans, and is a good example of theatric architecture. Built on site of old archaic temple Persians destroyed in 494 BCE. The exterior was in a grove of trees, with no deviations from other large scale ionic temples. Visitors wouldn't expect the interior to be different.
Cella raised 5 feet off ground, that an oracle likely uttered prophesies. Dark tunnels leading down, but suddenly opening to a sun bathed courtyard. "Labyrinth" stairs leading out of courtyard, impressive view when facing back toward tunnels. The fact that the temple is incomplete gives us an insight into construction methods - carved shallow diagrams of capitals, architecture into the wall. They would have a plan on the building, and polish it off after the structure was complete.
HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE
Heightened drama and viewer involvement are hallmarks of this period. Interest in portraiture develops, as opposed to kouroi and korai of archaic period - and classical sculpture strove for a timeless ideal, not realistic portraiture. Alexander the Great really started the movement, insisting his sculpture be made, recognizing the need for constant visual identification.
Engaging the viewer, full of emotion. This is a Gaul, no longer are enemies represented by analogy of myth, he has shaggy hair, mustache, and a torque. No longer suggests inferiority of enemies - he dies nobly. Blood pours from a wound in his chest. Viewer is drawn to the private-ness of the scene, he is dying alone, we are compelled to watch.
Hellenistic Painting
Battle of Issos, Alexander the Great. Darius and the fleeing Persians on the right, Alexander on the left. Fellow the four color scheme that was used at the time (telling us it is a faithful recreation in Pompeii) using yellow, red, black, and white.