Art History: Roman Art
Over all the civilizations of the ancient world the most accessible to modern scholars is the culture of ancient Rome. A vast literary legacy ranging from poetry and histories to inscriptions that recorded every day events reveals a great deal about Roman culture. Monuments are remarkably well preserved - Greek reproductions for example are still around.
Roman art can be boiled down to both Greek Classical and Hellenistic inspired, with periods of "Egyptomania," and bigger changes toward late antiquity. It was more than just "Greek copies." SYNCRETISM - an art that brings diverse elements together to produce something entirely new, with extremely strong message-bearing potential.
Syncretism was a profoundly Roman attitude, and is likely the secret to rome's great successes. Rome was highly tolerant of outside traditions so long as they didn't undermine the well being of the growing State. Populations of newly conquer regions were not subjected to roman custom - many eventually given citizenship. Gods were hospitably received in the capital.
Rome was diverse.
EARLY ROME: THE REPUBLIC
Legend states Romulus founded Rome in 752 BCE in region known as Latium, near the Tiber river. Archaeological evidence shows people lived there at least 1000 years prior. Many kings ruled the city, they were Etruscans. Built first defensive wall, drained and filled the swampy plain of the Forum, and built a vast temple on the Capitoline Hill (first image we'll see, below). They made Rome an urban center in what was previously a struggling cluster of villages.
509 BCE, Romans expelled last of the Etruscan kings, establishing a republic with an unwritten constitution. During time of republic, Rome eventually took over the Italian peninsula by 275 BCE. Punic Wars against Carthage took place at this time, and then Greece and Asia Minor came under roman control - thus starting an influx of Greek culture into Rome.
First century, BCE - Late Republic Period - Julius Caesar became perpetual dictator, assassinated two years later. Octavian was his successor, wiped out all opposition, and is thus known as the first emperor of Rome. Now in the EMPIRE.
Art was commissioned from Republic to Empire in order to enhance careers as well as embellish the city. The designs of these sculptures and architecture were influenced both by conquests abroad and by new techniques.
ARCHITECTURE: CONCRETE
On one of Rome's seven hills - The Capitoline - the great Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Started under two sixth century kings, Tarquinius the Ancient and Tarquinius the Proud. Built on a grand scale which was new to the Italian peninsula, evoking massive ionic temples of Greece.
Theatre complex of Pompey.
SCULPTURE
Classical Greek events in sculpture were disguised in mythological events. Romans developed what was long called "historical relief." Many of these were not historically accurate, but showed many more similarities to real life than these grand scenes of myth in relief sculpture.
The reliefs shown in this slide probably were part of a statue base - near a triumphal procession through Rome. They show a census taking place with a statue of Mars and what is likely the officiating officer at the census. Above this relief were additional registers depicting Neptune to a sea nymph, which is purported to be a Greek conquest taken back to Rome as a victory celebration - it is done in a swirling Hellenistic style. Strikingly different than rigid census below - the census panel was added later to compliment these registers. Evidence to support this are the various marbles used on the other registers.
PORTRAITURE
Literary sources indicate honored political or military figures would be venerated by displaying statues of them in public places. Custom began in early republic, continuing until the end of the empire. Many early portraits were bronze and haven't survived (melted down for coins, weapons). Called Brutus when found in the 16th century. The image doesn't get it's sense of power from Classical Greek idealization or stylized qualities - it gets its strength from the creases and furrowed brow, a life of engagement. The slight downward tilt of the head may indicate it was once part of an equestrian statue.
The majority of Republican portraits date to the end of the second century, and were carved from stone. Most are of older men. Winkles, deep craggy faces, warts, hooked noses - defining characteristics. This is called VERISTIC, from the Latin verus: true. These appear anything but idealized to us, but these qualities may not have been specifically "real" to the sitter. That is, Romans wanted to portray their leaders as wise and venerable, thus with these distinguished faces - qualities for winning the offices.
Why did they make these portraits? Portraits of Pompey have the tousled hair and characteristic cowlick of Alexander the Great, to evoke a youthful leader's charisma. Other influences may be a sort of visual genealogy, where in a society that prided itself on ancestral heritages, this played a large role in remembering faces.
On the togate male, he holds what are believed to be his ancestors. The irony is that the head on the main figure is not original. Scholars can rarely give a name to a figure portrayed in republican portraits. In the late republic and Augustan periods, freed slaves would commission group portraits to be placed on roadside monuments. The fact that they are even depicted indicates they are freed, often holding a woman's hand (marriage was illegal among slaves), or with a wedding ring. Their names were frequently inscribed. In the example shown, their former owner stands in the center.
THE EMPIRE
Julius Caesars assassination was a last ditch effort to save the roman republic. In 27 BCE the senate declared Octavian as Augustus Caesar. Brought level of stability to Mediterranean region that was never known before. Northern England to Middle East. The emperor became a patron of public art and architecture - the monuments often stressed the legitimacy of the imperial family.
PRIMAPORTA Octavian turned to a more Hellenistic style, ageless youth. Striking resemblance to Doryphoros, likely an intentional parallel. I evoked the apogee of Athenian culture, essentially stating that Augustan Rome was Greece's successor in cultural supremacy.
MARCUS AURELIUS MOUNTED
Beginning of second half of the 2nd century, CE, portraits took on a slightly more abstract quality. The treatment of the eyes is especially so marked, his heavy lids making him appear remote. Survived medieval melting because he was thought to be Constantine.
One arm outstretched in a gesture of mercy, sits calmly astride a stir tired horse, whose leg once stood atop a conquered barbarian. He is bearded, to directly link himself with the Ancient Greek philosophers, a trait many political figures wanted to emulate; his military cloak depict him in his public role as general.
RELIEF SCULPTURE:
ARA PACIS: Practice of commissioning narrative reliefs to record specific events continued well into the Empire. Mounted on public buildings or monuments such as the Ara Pacis, the Altar of Augustan Peace. Covered in relief sculpture of rome's legendary past, dedicated to the emperors return from Spain and Gaul - ensuring peace in the empire.
ARCH OF TITUS: Triumphant generals erected arches upon their return home, which celebrated great victories while also reminding of those lost in battle. Earliest surviving free standing arch in Rome. Triumph after the conquest of Jerusalem (see picture), carrying loot including a menorah and other sacred objects from the temple of the city. The reliefs involve the viewer - we are a part of this victory procession. Titus rides in a chariot being crowned by a personification of victory. Honor and Virtue are also present. Their presence, and Vespasian's absence (who is credited with being at the victory celebration) indicate that these reliefs were made to serve specific ideologies of their patron (Titus).
COLUMN OF TRAJAN: victory monument and tomb. 656 foot-long spiraling narrative relief winds its way up. Begins with the roman army crossing the Danube, to reach Dacian territory, represented by a large personification. Second band shows Trajan speaking to his soldiers, and building fortifications. Third band shows building a military camp and bridge, as horses ride out to scout ahead of the army. Fourth shows soldiers moving out, while emperor addresses his troops in front of a Dacian fortress.
Among the 150+ episodes depicted, few are of combat. Geographic, logistic, and political aspects of the campaign are highlighted. Scenes merge into a continuous whole, sometimes only divided by a tree or building. Generic "stock" scenes were used to allow images to be recognized from its impressive height and spiraling turns.
May have been intentional due to Roman ritual known as decursio - where visitors to a tomb walked around it to prevent harmful spirits from entering, while paying homage to the deceased.
ARCHITECTURE
Pompey's theatre complex was the first in a long series of civic improvements by the elite to gain favor with the populace. Several forums built, wide plazas with porticos lining them. Augustus' forum had a large temple to Mars the Avenger - due to Caesar's assassination. Augustus' forum utilized caryatids and other statues depicting rome's greatness. Trajan's caryatids were replaced with captive Dacians. The message of this forum was clear - the Dacian Wars brought Rome great benefit and wealth. Dispel the stark realities of war through visual propaganda.
COLOSSEUM
Vespasian constructed a forum too, but is more known for his construction of a permanent amphitheater. Former gladiatorial matches were held in the forum, with temporary wooden bleachers. Vespasian died before its completion, Titus finished it in 80 CE. Celebrated with 100 days of games, 9,000 animals died, held 50,000 spectators. Concrete was the reason for its success. Etruscan (similar to Doric, simple bases) columns at bottom, Ionic middle, Corinthian at third level. Engaged Corinthian pilasters sat on the top.
PANTHEON
Masterpiece of roman architecture, dedicated to all gods. One of the best preserved pagan temples of Rome - due to it being converted to a church in early 7th c CE. Modern view of it is acted dramatically and detracts from the original impression of the structure. Visitors would proceed through a rectangular court, not seeing the circular drum of the main structure. The image would have led the expectation of a rectangular cella within, housing a large statue to the dedicated god. Wat a visitor truly saw was surprise. 27-foot Oculus sent a shaft of light within. Dome and drum are of equal height; width is the total height. Sphere = eternity or perfection. Renaissance era scholars found fault with the structure - but the illusion is intentional, creating the illusion of a hovering dome. The visitor is part of this experience. Pictures don't do it justice - simply standing inside the structure strikes awe (even into my modern heart!).
Roman houses had rooms grouped around an atrium - a large chamber with an open roof. Ground floor of larger "apartment blocks" had shops or taverns. Rooms were painted as a testament to wealth, as well as decoration. There are four distinct phases of wall paintings found in Rome at this time.
First style: painted stucco to imitate expensive marble.
Second style: architectural features / fantastic elements added. Figures.
Third style: solid planes of intense color. Architectural panels, etc.
Fourth style: combination of all three previous styles.
LATE EMPIRE
Portrait sculpture: Rome was on the decline - Marcus Aurelius reign passed to Commodus (assassinated in 192 CE) which then hit an all time low when the throne was auctioned off to the highest bidder. Emperors came and went quickly, portraiture reflects the harsh mi,it artistic nature of these times of civil war.
Diocletian restored roman authority, strict order both civically and militarily. He further divided power of the emperor among four rulers, known as the tetrarchs (two senior emperors: Augusti; two juniors: Caesars) Terms limited, Caesars would succeed Augusti.
The sculpture has four figures (likely formerly part of a column) who are indistinguishable, aside from one having a bear in each pair. Abstract, squat, generic figures. This suggests power comes with the office, not the individual. The sameness of the qualities underline the equality of power they shared; their embrace stresses their solidarity. Porphyry is a deep purple Egyptian stone reserved only for imperial portraits, its use here stresses their power.
Early fourth century, tetrarchy dissolves. Constantine overcame Maxentius, at Milvian Bridge. This head is part of a vast seated portrait that once rested inside an apse in a basilica. The eyes are disproportionally large, rigid - abstract and iconic.
Over all the civilizations of the ancient world the most accessible to modern scholars is the culture of ancient Rome. A vast literary legacy ranging from poetry and histories to inscriptions that recorded every day events reveals a great deal about Roman culture. Monuments are remarkably well preserved - Greek reproductions for example are still around.
Roman art can be boiled down to both Greek Classical and Hellenistic inspired, with periods of "Egyptomania," and bigger changes toward late antiquity. It was more than just "Greek copies." SYNCRETISM - an art that brings diverse elements together to produce something entirely new, with extremely strong message-bearing potential.
Syncretism was a profoundly Roman attitude, and is likely the secret to rome's great successes. Rome was highly tolerant of outside traditions so long as they didn't undermine the well being of the growing State. Populations of newly conquer regions were not subjected to roman custom - many eventually given citizenship. Gods were hospitably received in the capital.
Rome was diverse.
EARLY ROME: THE REPUBLIC
Legend states Romulus founded Rome in 752 BCE in region known as Latium, near the Tiber river. Archaeological evidence shows people lived there at least 1000 years prior. Many kings ruled the city, they were Etruscans. Built first defensive wall, drained and filled the swampy plain of the Forum, and built a vast temple on the Capitoline Hill (first image we'll see, below). They made Rome an urban center in what was previously a struggling cluster of villages.
509 BCE, Romans expelled last of the Etruscan kings, establishing a republic with an unwritten constitution. During time of republic, Rome eventually took over the Italian peninsula by 275 BCE. Punic Wars against Carthage took place at this time, and then Greece and Asia Minor came under roman control - thus starting an influx of Greek culture into Rome.
First century, BCE - Late Republic Period - Julius Caesar became perpetual dictator, assassinated two years later. Octavian was his successor, wiped out all opposition, and is thus known as the first emperor of Rome. Now in the EMPIRE.
Art was commissioned from Republic to Empire in order to enhance careers as well as embellish the city. The designs of these sculptures and architecture were influenced both by conquests abroad and by new techniques.
ARCHITECTURE: CONCRETE
On one of Rome's seven hills - The Capitoline - the great Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Started under two sixth century kings, Tarquinius the Ancient and Tarquinius the Proud. Built on a grand scale which was new to the Italian peninsula, evoking massive ionic temples of Greece.
Theatre complex of Pompey.
SCULPTURE
Classical Greek events in sculpture were disguised in mythological events. Romans developed what was long called "historical relief." Many of these were not historically accurate, but showed many more similarities to real life than these grand scenes of myth in relief sculpture.
The reliefs shown in this slide probably were part of a statue base - near a triumphal procession through Rome. They show a census taking place with a statue of Mars and what is likely the officiating officer at the census. Above this relief were additional registers depicting Neptune to a sea nymph, which is purported to be a Greek conquest taken back to Rome as a victory celebration - it is done in a swirling Hellenistic style. Strikingly different than rigid census below - the census panel was added later to compliment these registers. Evidence to support this are the various marbles used on the other registers.
PORTRAITURE
Literary sources indicate honored political or military figures would be venerated by displaying statues of them in public places. Custom began in early republic, continuing until the end of the empire. Many early portraits were bronze and haven't survived (melted down for coins, weapons). Called Brutus when found in the 16th century. The image doesn't get it's sense of power from Classical Greek idealization or stylized qualities - it gets its strength from the creases and furrowed brow, a life of engagement. The slight downward tilt of the head may indicate it was once part of an equestrian statue.
The majority of Republican portraits date to the end of the second century, and were carved from stone. Most are of older men. Winkles, deep craggy faces, warts, hooked noses - defining characteristics. This is called VERISTIC, from the Latin verus: true. These appear anything but idealized to us, but these qualities may not have been specifically "real" to the sitter. That is, Romans wanted to portray their leaders as wise and venerable, thus with these distinguished faces - qualities for winning the offices.
Why did they make these portraits? Portraits of Pompey have the tousled hair and characteristic cowlick of Alexander the Great, to evoke a youthful leader's charisma. Other influences may be a sort of visual genealogy, where in a society that prided itself on ancestral heritages, this played a large role in remembering faces.
On the togate male, he holds what are believed to be his ancestors. The irony is that the head on the main figure is not original. Scholars can rarely give a name to a figure portrayed in republican portraits. In the late republic and Augustan periods, freed slaves would commission group portraits to be placed on roadside monuments. The fact that they are even depicted indicates they are freed, often holding a woman's hand (marriage was illegal among slaves), or with a wedding ring. Their names were frequently inscribed. In the example shown, their former owner stands in the center.
THE EMPIRE
Julius Caesars assassination was a last ditch effort to save the roman republic. In 27 BCE the senate declared Octavian as Augustus Caesar. Brought level of stability to Mediterranean region that was never known before. Northern England to Middle East. The emperor became a patron of public art and architecture - the monuments often stressed the legitimacy of the imperial family.
PRIMAPORTA Octavian turned to a more Hellenistic style, ageless youth. Striking resemblance to Doryphoros, likely an intentional parallel. I evoked the apogee of Athenian culture, essentially stating that Augustan Rome was Greece's successor in cultural supremacy.
MARCUS AURELIUS MOUNTED
Beginning of second half of the 2nd century, CE, portraits took on a slightly more abstract quality. The treatment of the eyes is especially so marked, his heavy lids making him appear remote. Survived medieval melting because he was thought to be Constantine.
One arm outstretched in a gesture of mercy, sits calmly astride a stir tired horse, whose leg once stood atop a conquered barbarian. He is bearded, to directly link himself with the Ancient Greek philosophers, a trait many political figures wanted to emulate; his military cloak depict him in his public role as general.
RELIEF SCULPTURE:
ARA PACIS: Practice of commissioning narrative reliefs to record specific events continued well into the Empire. Mounted on public buildings or monuments such as the Ara Pacis, the Altar of Augustan Peace. Covered in relief sculpture of rome's legendary past, dedicated to the emperors return from Spain and Gaul - ensuring peace in the empire.
ARCH OF TITUS: Triumphant generals erected arches upon their return home, which celebrated great victories while also reminding of those lost in battle. Earliest surviving free standing arch in Rome. Triumph after the conquest of Jerusalem (see picture), carrying loot including a menorah and other sacred objects from the temple of the city. The reliefs involve the viewer - we are a part of this victory procession. Titus rides in a chariot being crowned by a personification of victory. Honor and Virtue are also present. Their presence, and Vespasian's absence (who is credited with being at the victory celebration) indicate that these reliefs were made to serve specific ideologies of their patron (Titus).
COLUMN OF TRAJAN: victory monument and tomb. 656 foot-long spiraling narrative relief winds its way up. Begins with the roman army crossing the Danube, to reach Dacian territory, represented by a large personification. Second band shows Trajan speaking to his soldiers, and building fortifications. Third band shows building a military camp and bridge, as horses ride out to scout ahead of the army. Fourth shows soldiers moving out, while emperor addresses his troops in front of a Dacian fortress.
Among the 150+ episodes depicted, few are of combat. Geographic, logistic, and political aspects of the campaign are highlighted. Scenes merge into a continuous whole, sometimes only divided by a tree or building. Generic "stock" scenes were used to allow images to be recognized from its impressive height and spiraling turns.
May have been intentional due to Roman ritual known as decursio - where visitors to a tomb walked around it to prevent harmful spirits from entering, while paying homage to the deceased.
ARCHITECTURE
Pompey's theatre complex was the first in a long series of civic improvements by the elite to gain favor with the populace. Several forums built, wide plazas with porticos lining them. Augustus' forum had a large temple to Mars the Avenger - due to Caesar's assassination. Augustus' forum utilized caryatids and other statues depicting rome's greatness. Trajan's caryatids were replaced with captive Dacians. The message of this forum was clear - the Dacian Wars brought Rome great benefit and wealth. Dispel the stark realities of war through visual propaganda.
COLOSSEUM
Vespasian constructed a forum too, but is more known for his construction of a permanent amphitheater. Former gladiatorial matches were held in the forum, with temporary wooden bleachers. Vespasian died before its completion, Titus finished it in 80 CE. Celebrated with 100 days of games, 9,000 animals died, held 50,000 spectators. Concrete was the reason for its success. Etruscan (similar to Doric, simple bases) columns at bottom, Ionic middle, Corinthian at third level. Engaged Corinthian pilasters sat on the top.
PANTHEON
Masterpiece of roman architecture, dedicated to all gods. One of the best preserved pagan temples of Rome - due to it being converted to a church in early 7th c CE. Modern view of it is acted dramatically and detracts from the original impression of the structure. Visitors would proceed through a rectangular court, not seeing the circular drum of the main structure. The image would have led the expectation of a rectangular cella within, housing a large statue to the dedicated god. Wat a visitor truly saw was surprise. 27-foot Oculus sent a shaft of light within. Dome and drum are of equal height; width is the total height. Sphere = eternity or perfection. Renaissance era scholars found fault with the structure - but the illusion is intentional, creating the illusion of a hovering dome. The visitor is part of this experience. Pictures don't do it justice - simply standing inside the structure strikes awe (even into my modern heart!).
Roman houses had rooms grouped around an atrium - a large chamber with an open roof. Ground floor of larger "apartment blocks" had shops or taverns. Rooms were painted as a testament to wealth, as well as decoration. There are four distinct phases of wall paintings found in Rome at this time.
First style: painted stucco to imitate expensive marble.
Second style: architectural features / fantastic elements added. Figures.
Third style: solid planes of intense color. Architectural panels, etc.
Fourth style: combination of all three previous styles.
LATE EMPIRE
Portrait sculpture: Rome was on the decline - Marcus Aurelius reign passed to Commodus (assassinated in 192 CE) which then hit an all time low when the throne was auctioned off to the highest bidder. Emperors came and went quickly, portraiture reflects the harsh mi,it artistic nature of these times of civil war.
Diocletian restored roman authority, strict order both civically and militarily. He further divided power of the emperor among four rulers, known as the tetrarchs (two senior emperors: Augusti; two juniors: Caesars) Terms limited, Caesars would succeed Augusti.
The sculpture has four figures (likely formerly part of a column) who are indistinguishable, aside from one having a bear in each pair. Abstract, squat, generic figures. This suggests power comes with the office, not the individual. The sameness of the qualities underline the equality of power they shared; their embrace stresses their solidarity. Porphyry is a deep purple Egyptian stone reserved only for imperial portraits, its use here stresses their power.
Early fourth century, tetrarchy dissolves. Constantine overcame Maxentius, at Milvian Bridge. This head is part of a vast seated portrait that once rested inside an apse in a basilica. The eyes are disproportionally large, rigid - abstract and iconic.